Frameworks of Causal Inference for Improving Intervention, Prediction, and Imagination in Family Violence Research: a Commentary on Rose (2018) Abstract The purpose of this commentary on Rose (2018) is to address several important reasons why credible causal frameworks are critical to the success of family violence research. The commentary addresses three topics: intervention, prediction, and imagination. These three areas provide justification for why an improvement in causal inference will also yield greater research impact.

Identifying how to Engage Men in Domestic Violence Research: a Concept Mapping Study Abstract The Engaging Men project aimed to identify facilitators, societal approaches to and support for domestic violence, and barriers to men’s participation in domestic violence research, assessing the importance of each factor. Participatory concept mapping was used with a convenience sample of men (n = 142) in person and online across Australia, Canada and the United States of America. Engaging Men identified 43 facilitators, societal approaches to and support for domestic violence, and/or barriers to men’s participation in domestic violence research. The strongest facilitators related to external connections, such as concern for women around them. Men also recognized societal approaches to and support for domestic violence and the strongest barriers centered on internal feelings, including fear, shame and guilt about being linked to domestic violence. This study suggests that providing a safe environment for men to express genuine thoughts, feeling and views about domestic violence is vital, yet rarely available in domestic violence research. Therefore, research opportunities need to be more effectively designed and incentivized to address challenging issues identified by men, such as fear, shame and guilt and offer meaningful opportunities to demonstrate positive change.

No Credibility without Plausibility: a Response to Lewis and Lanier Abstract In this commentary I respond to Lewis (2019) and Lanier (2019), building on their critiques and ideas, offering some additional thoughts about the dissemination of the Campbell, Rubin, and Pearl causal frameworks and their potential emergent value to the future of family violence research. I clarify that the central issue to credibility is the plausibility of assumptions, that some widely utilized methods often require researchers to make implausible assumptions, and that there is value to knowing and using all three frameworks.

Childhood Polyvictimization, Adult Violent Victimization, and Trauma Symptomatology: An Exploratory Study of Prostitution Diversion Program Participants Abstract Prostitution diversion program participants who have experienced lifelong patterns of abuse, including child polyvictimization and later adult victimization, may exhibit greater trauma symptomatology than participants who have not experienced lifelong abuse. If true, these participants may face unique barriers to successful program completion as a result of their increased trauma symptomatology. This calls into question whether incarceration is an appropriate sanction for program failure. Data from a prostitution diversion program located in Houston, Texas, was used to conduct a series of bivariate analyses that examined whether participants who had experienced multiple types of child abuse: (1) were more criminally involved, (2) were more likely to report adult victimization, and (3) exhibited greater trauma symptomatology relative to program participants who had never experienced child abuse, or only experienced a single type. Participants who had experienced multiple types of child abuse were more likely to report adult victimization and greater trauma symptomatology relative to participants who had not experienced any child abuse. The prostitution diversion program examined in this study contained a subgroup of participants who had experienced multiple types of child abuse, possessed an increased risk of adult victimization, and reported greater trauma symptomatology. These participants are trauma survivors, and may face unique barriers to program completion. Consequently, incarceration is a misguided sanction for program failure, as it may lead to further traumatization.

Comment on Frameworks for Causal Inference Abstract Rose compares three frameworks for causal inference: Potential Outcomes, DAGS, and Campbell’s Framework. I argue that Potential Outcomes is more appropriately thought of as a conceptual analysis of the notion of a causal effect and offer some objections to that analysis. I also contend that DAGS allow for a more precise definition of the concept of confounding variable than the one more typically seen in the social sciences. And I argue that what Rose regards as limitations of Potential Outcomes and DAGS aren’t really limitations. Both Potential Outcomes and DAGS were developed for certain purposes. Rose’s claim about limitations amounts to expecting each to do something it wasn’t designed to do.

Frameworks for Credible Causal Inference in Observational Studies of Family Violence Abstract Causal questions pervade family violence research, including how and why violence occurs, how it can be prevented, and how to support survivors. Randomization cannot always be used, but in studies of the effects of known causes, regression based observational methods (e.g., propensity score analysis) can be used. Statistical findings are associational only, however, and plausible assumptions are needed to give findings causal meaning. In this review, I suggest two criteria for plausible assumptions that help support credible causal inferences. I then describe and connect three frameworks that provide standards for specifying assumptions in causal inference: the Rubin potential outcomes framework; the Pearl directed acyclic graph framework; and the Campbell framework of validities (e.g., internal validity). These frameworks are widely accepted across the social sciences, facilitating dissemination and critique. Each has strengths and weaknesses, and in studies of the effects of known causes, they may complement each other. Utilizing the standards given to us by these frameworks to select and articulate the assumptions needed for credible causal inference will impact our understanding of family violence and violence prevention more so than studies that cannot be connected as clearly to such standards.

Gender-Based Violence in Senegal: its Catalysts and Connections from a Community Perspective Abstract Gender-based violence is associated with an array of negative health outcomes for women and limits their opportunities to fully participate in society. Only recently have studies begun to explore the interconnectedness of emotional, physical and sexual gender-based violence. This qualitative study sought to understand how men and women in Senegal perceive various forms of gender-based violence, their connections, and who could best promote change among perpetrators of violence. Community focus group discussions that used structured exercises adapted from Participatory Learning and Action group activities were carried out in urban and rural settings in seven regions of Senegal. Groups were sampled for maximum variation within rural and urban settings in each region (n = 28 groups and n = 267 participants). Male and female groups in both urban and rural settings described each form of violence similarly. Examples of emotional violence centered around home finances, neglect, and dependency. Emotional violence between male and female spouses escalated to physically and sexually violent behaviors, uniquely directed at women and girls. Physical violence was described in two levels: acceptable and unacceptable. Sexual violence was described as common within households but unreported. Economic considerations cross-cut each form of violence. The findings from this study contribute to conceptual definitions and understandings of GBV from a community perspective to better inform programmatic and communication approaches for the reduction of GBV in Senegal. Challenges will remain until the global community can more effectively address equitable access to financial resources among the world’s poorest.

Mental Health Diagnoses of Youth Commercial Sex Exploitation Victims: an Analysis within an Adjudicated Delinquent Sample Abstract Existing criminology and victimization research suggests that youth victims of commercial sex often have mental health issues stemming from their sex victimization and/or emerging out of their long histories of family abuse, neglect and family conflict. However, what is not known is whether youth commercial sex victims, when compared to adjudicated delinquent, serious adolescent offenders, present unique mental health issues when they contact the juvenile justice system. We use the Pathways to Desistance longitudinal data that contains a sample of 1354 serious, adjudicated, juvenile offenders from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Phoenix, Arizona to address this question. According to our analyses, youths who had ever been paid for sex had significantly higher rates of several mental health disorders when compared to their high risk, adjudicated delinquent peers who had not engaged in commercial sex. We explain our findings concerning the potentially increased mental health diagnoses for youth commercial sex exploitation victims during and after their periods of adjudication.

Patterns of Sibling Victimization as Predictors of Peer Victimization in Childhood and Adolescence Abstract We document four patterns of sibling victimization (Persist, New, Desist, and None) across two time points and their association with peer victimization at time two and whether these linkages are apparent in early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence. A telephone survey (N = 1653) was conducted with a nationally representative sample of U.S. parents with children (age 3–9) and adolescents (age 10 to 17). The four patterns differed by age, gender, ethnicity and parent education levels but not family structure. The Persist, New and Desist sibling victimization patterns were associated with a greater likelihood of peer victimization. Sibling victimization patterns were unrelated to peer victimization in early childhood but predictive of peer victimization in middle childhood and adolescence. Findings showed that sibling victimization leaves children and adolescents vulnerable to peer victimization. Children and adolescents who experienced chronic sibling victimization (Persist group) were particularly vulnerable to peer victimization. Eliminating sibling victimization could reduce peer victimization in middle childhood and adolescence.

Domestic Violence Exposure and Peer Relationships: Exploring the Role of Coercive Control Exposure Abstract Coercive control—a relational dynamic rooted in one romantic partner’s intentional domination and control over their partner’s daily life using physical violence and nonphysical abuse tactics—has been well-documented in the adult domestic violence (DV) literature for decades. Yet, only recently has coercive control been assessed in the context of DV exposure and few studies have examined exposure to coercive control from the perspective of young adult children. It has been theorized that the inclusion of coercive control may explain inconsistent findings regarding the impact of DV exposure on adjustment domains, particularly peer relationships. Thus, the present study, using an exploratory and formative perspective, examined the relationship between DV exposure and peer relationship experiences (e.g., bullying victimization and perpetration, friendship quality) among a sample of DV-exposed young adults. Data for this study comes from phase two of the Young Adult Live and Learn (Y’ALL) Project. The sample (72.1% female; 74.1% European American) included young adults who were exposed to DV (n = 99) and young adults who were not exposed to DV (n = 48). Exposure to coercive control, controlling for physical violence exposure, was associated with higher levels of bullying victimization and better friendship quality, whereas exposure to more frequent physical violence was associated with higher levels of bullying perpetration. Findings from the present study add to the growing body of literature demonstrating the salience of measuring coercive control when studying youth DV exposure, as coercive control may better explain outcomes, such as peer relationship experiences, above and beyond assessments of physical violence exposure alone.